McDonald criteria

The McDonald criteria are diagnostic criteria for multiple sclerosis (MS).

These criteria are named after neurologist W. Ian McDonald.
In April 2001, an international panel in association with the National Multiple Sclerosis Society (NMSS) of America recommended revised diagnostic criteria for MS. They discourage the previously used terms such as "clinically definite" and "probable MS", and propose as diagnostic either "MS", "possible MS", or "not MS".
They have undergone revisions in 2005 and 2010. They make use of advances in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) techniques and are intended to replace the Poser criteria and the older Schumacher criteria. The new criteria facilitate the diagnosis of MS in patients who present with signs and symptoms suggestive of the disease. These include monosymptomatic disease, disease with a typical relapsing-remitting course or insidious progression but no clear attacks and remissions. The original article of McDonald states that "MS is a clinical entity and therefore should be diagnosized [sic] with clinical and paraclinical criteria".Nevertheless, they acknowledge the existence of lesion-based MS definition, saying that some other groups consider that "the only proved diagnosis of MS can be made upon autopsy, or occasionally upon biopsy, where lesions typical of MS can be directly detected through standard histopathological techniques".

Clinical Presentation	Additional Data Needed
* 2 or more attacks (relapses) * 2 or more objective clinical lesions	None; clinical evidence will suffice (additional evidence desirable but must be consistent with MS)
* 2 or more attacks * 1 objective clinical lesion	Dissemination in space, demonstrated by: * MRI * or a positive CSF and 2 or more MRI lesions consistent with MS * or further clinical attack involving different site
* 1 attack * 2 or more objective clinical lesions	Dissemination in time, demonstrated by: * MRI * or second clinical attack
* 1 attack * 1 objective clinical lesion (monosymptomatic presentation)	Dissemination in space demonstrated by: * MRI * or positive CSF and 2 or more MRI lesions consistent with MS and Dissemination in time demonstrated by: * MRI * or second clinical attack
Insidious neurological progression suggestive of MS (primary progressive MS)	One year of disease progression (retrospectively or prospectively determined) and Two of the following: a. Positive brain MRI (nine T2 lesions or four or more T2 lesions with positive VEP) b. Positive spinal cord MRI (two focal T2 lesions) c. Positive CSF

Intrathecal

Intrathecal is an adjective that refers to something introduced into or occurring in the space under the arachnoid membrane of the brain or spinal cord.
For example, intrathecal immunoglobulin production means production of this substance in the spinal cord.

The western blot = immunoblot

The western blot (sometimes called the protein immunoblot) is a widely accepted analytical technique used to detect specific proteins in the given sample of tissue homogenate or extract.

It uses gel electrophoresis to separate native proteins by 3-D structure or denatured proteins by the length of the polypeptide. The proteins are then transferred to a membrane (typically nitrocellulose or PVDF), where they are stained with antibodies specific to the target protein.

There are now many reagent companies that specialize in providing antibodies (both monoclonal and polyclonal antibodies) against tens of thousands of different proteins.
Commercial antibodies can be expensive, although the unbound antibody can be reused between experiments.
This method is used in the fields of molecular biology, biochemistry, immunogenetics and other molecular biology disciplines.

Alfabeto grego

Letter Name Sound value Ancient[4] Modern[5] Α α alpha [a] [aː] [a] Β β beta [b] [v] Γ γ gamma [ɡ] [ɣ] ~ [ʝ] Δ δ delta [d] [ð] Ε ε epsilon [e] [e] Ζ ζ zeta [zd] (or [dz][6]) [z] Η η eta [ɛː] [i] Θ θ theta [tʰ] [θ] Ι ι iota [i] [iː] [i] Κ κ kappa [k] [k] ~ [c] Λ λ lambda [l] [l] Μ μ mu [m] [m]

Letter Name Sound value Ancient Modern Ν ν nu [n] [n] Ξ ξ xi [ks] [ks] Ο ο omicron [o] [o] Π π pi [p] [p] Ρ ρ rho [r] [r] Σ σς[7] sigma [s] [s] Τ τ tau [t] [t] Υ υ upsilon [y] [yː] [i] Φ φ phi [pʰ] [f] Χ χ chi [kʰ] [x] ~ [ç] Ψ ψ psi [ps] [ps] Ω ω omega [ɔː] [o]

Refractive index

In optics the refractive index or index of refraction n of a substance (optical medium) is a dimensionless number that describes how light, or any other radiation, propagates through that medium.

It is defined as n=c/v where c is the speed of light in vacuum and v is the speed of light in the substance.

For example, the refractive index of water is 1.33, meaning that light travels 1.33 times slower in water than it does in vacuum.

Stroboscope - Análise microscópica automatizada da urina

Leitura do IRIS - análise de urina - na microscopia por lâmpada stroboscópica.

A stroboscope, also known as a strobe, is an instrument used to make a cyclically moving object appear to be slow-moving, or stationary.
The principle is used for the study of rotating, reciprocating, oscillating or vibrating objects.
Machine parts and vibrating strings are common examples.

Liofilizar

Freeze-drying, also known as lyophilisation, lyophilization, or cryodesiccation, is a dehydration process typically used to preserve a perishable material or make the material more convenient for transport.

Freeze-drying works by freezing the material and then reducing the surrounding pressure to allow the frozen water in the material to sublimate directly from the solid phase to the gas phase.

If a freeze-dried substance is sealed to prevent the reabsorption of moisture, the substance may be stored at room temperature without refrigeration, and be protected against spoilage for many years.

Preservation is possible because the greatly reduced water content inhibits the action of microorganisms and enzymes that would normally spoil or degrade the substance.

Freeze-drying also causes less damage to the substance than other dehydration methods using higher temperatures.
Freeze-drying does not usually cause shrinkage or toughening of the material being dried. In addition, flavours, smells and nutritional content generally remain unchanged, making the process popular for preserving food.
However, water is not the only chemical capable of sublimation, and the loss of other volatile compounds such as acetic acid (vinegar) and alcohols can yield undesirable results. Freeze-dried products can be rehydrated (reconstituted) much more quickly and easily because the process leaves microscopic pores. The pores are created by the ice crystals that sublimate, leaving gaps or pores in their place. This is especially important when it comes to pharmaceutical uses.
Freeze-drying can also be used to increase the shelf life of some pharmaceuticals for many years.

Cystinuria

Cystinuria is an inherited autosomal recessive disease that is characterized by the formation of cystine stones in the kidneys, ureter, and bladder.