Colesterol

Antifúngicos e Ergosterol

Ergosterol (ergosta-5,7,22-trien-3β-ol) is a sterol found in fungi (and named for ergot, a common name for the members of the fungal genus Claviceps from which ergosterol was first isolated). Ergosterol does not occur in plant or animal cells. It is a component of yeast and fungal cell membranes, serving the same function cholesterol serves in animal cells. Miconazole, itraconazole, and clotrimazole work in a different way, inhibiting synthesis of ergosterol from lanosterol. Ergosterol is a smaller molecule than lanosterol; it is synthesized by combining two molecules of farnesyl pyrophosphate, a 15-carbon-long terpenoid, into lanosterol, which has 30 carbons. Then, two methyl groups are removed, making ergosterol. The "azole" class of antifungal agents inhibit the enzyme that performs these demethylation steps in the biosynthetic pathway between lanosterol and ergosterol. Amphotericin B, an antifungal drug, targets ergosterol. It binds physically to ergosterol within the membrane, thus creating a polar pore in fungal membranes. This causes ions (predominantly potassium and protons) and other molecules to leak out, which will kill the cell.[8] Amphotericin B has been replaced by safer agents in most circumstances, but is still used, despite its side effects, for life-threatening fungal or protozoan infections. Like other allylamines, terbinafine inhibits ergosterol synthesis by inhibiting squalene epoxidase, an enzyme that is part of the fungal cell membrane synthesis pathway. Because terbinafine prevents conversion of squalene to lanosterol, ergosterol cannot be synthesized. This is thought to change cell membrane permeability, causing fungal cell lysis. Ergosterol is also present in the cell membranes of some protists, such as trypanosomes.[7] This is the basis for the use of some antifungals against West African sleeping sickness.

Tabela de antifúngicos

Post-hoc analysis

In the design and analysis of experiments, post-hoc analysis (from Latin post hoc, "after this") consists of looking at the data—after the experiment has concluded—for patterns that were not specified a priori. It is sometimes called by critics data dredging to evoke the sense that the more one looks the more likely something will be found. More subtly, each time a pattern in the data is considered, a statistical test is effectively performed.

Cápsula bacteriana

Trypticase soy agar e Caseína

Trypticase soy agar is a bacterial growth medium.

TSA is a general purpose medium , providing enough nutrients to allow for a wide variety of microorganisms to grow. It is used for a wide range of applications including; culture storage, enumeration (counting), isolation of pure cultures or simply general culture. e.g. Tryptocase Soy Agar (TSA) Tryptocase Soy Broth (TSB) Nutrient Agar

The medium contains enzymatic digests of casein and soybean meal which provides amino acids and other nitrogenous substances making it a nutritious medium for a variety of organisms.Glucose is the energy source. Sodium chloride maintains the osmotic equilibrium, while dipotassium phosphate acts as buffer to maintain pH. Agar extracted from any number of organisms is used as a gelling agent.

The medium may be supplemented with blood to facilitate the growth of more fastidious bacteria or antimicrobial agents to permit the selection of various microbial groups from pure flora. As with any media, minor changes may be made to suit specific circumstances. TSA is frequently the base media of other agar plate type, i.e. blood agar plates (BAP) are made by enriching TSA plates with blood

One liter of the agar contains:^[1]

• 15 g Tryptone
• 5 g Soytone - enzymatic digest of soybean meal
• 5 g Sodium Chloride
• 15 g Agar

Casein (/ˈkeɪs.ɪn/ or /ˈkeɪˌsiːn/, from Latin caseus, "cheese") is the name for a family of related phosphoproteins (αS1, αS2, β, κ). These proteins are commonly found in mammalian milk, making up 80% of the proteins in cow milk and between 20% and 45% of the proteins in human milk.^[1] Casein has a wide variety of uses, from being a major component of cheese, to use as a food additive, to a binder for safety matches.^[2] As a food source, casein supplies amino acids, carbohydrates, and the two inorganic elements calcium and phosphorus.^[3]

Ágar e Agarose

Agar (pronounced /ˈɑːɡər/, "ah-gər") or agar-agar (/ˈɑːɡərˈɑːɡər/, "ah-gər-ah-gər") is a gelatinous substance, obtained from algae and discovered in 1658 by Minora Tanzaemon in Japan, where it is called Kanten, and is used traditionally in some confectionaries.

Agar is derived from the polysaccharide agarose, which forms the supporting structure in the cell walls of certain species of algae, and which is released on boiling. These algae are known as agarophytes and belong to the Rhodophyta (red algae) phylum .^[1][2] Agar is actually the resulting mixture of two components: the linear polysaccharide agarose, and a heterogeneous mixture of smaller molecules called agaropectin.^[3]

Throughout history into modern times, agar has been chiefly used as an ingredient in desserts throughout Asia and also as a solid substrate to contain culture medium for microbiological work. Agar (agar-agar) can be used as a laxative, an appetite suppressant, vegetarian gelatinsubstitute, a thickener for soups, in fruit preserves, ice cream, and other desserts, as a clarifying agent in brewing, and for sizing paper and fabrics.^[4]

An agarose is a polysaccharide polymer material, generally extracted from seaweed. Agarose is a linear polymer made up of the repeating unit of agarobiose, which is a disaccharide made up of D-galactose and 3,6-anhydro-L-galactopyranose.^[1] Agarose is one of the two principal components ofagar, and is purified from agar by removing agar's other component, agaropectin.^[2]

Agarose is frequently used in molecular biology for the separation of large molecules, especially DNA, by electrophoresis. Slabs of agarose gels (usually 0.7 - 2%) for electrophoresis are readily prepared by pouring the warm, liquid solution into a mold. A wide range of different agaroses, of varying molecular weights and properties are commercially available for this purpose.

Acridine orange

Acridine orange is a nucleic acid selective fluorescent cationic dye useful for cell cycle determination. It is cell-permeable, and interacts with DNAand RNA by intercalation or electrostatic attractions respectively. When bound to DNA, it is very similar spectrally to fluorescein, with an excitationmaximum at 502 nm and an emission maximum at 525 nm (green). When it associates with RNA, the excitation maximum shifts to 460 nm (blue) and the emission maximum shifts to 650 nm (red). Acridine orange will also enter acidic compartments such as lysosomes and become protonated and sequestered. In these low pH conditions, the dye will emit orange light when excited by blue light. Thus, acridine orange can be used to identify engulfed apoptotic cells, because it will fluoresce upon engulfment. The dye is often used in epifluorescence microscopy.

Flora da Pele

Normal Flora of Skin

Skin provides good examples of various microenvironments. Skin regions have been compared to geographic regions of Earth: the desert of the forearm, the cool woods of the scalp, and the tropical forest of the armpit. The composition of the dermal microflora varies from site to site according to the character of the microenvironment. A different bacterial flora characterizes each of three regions of skin: (1) axilla, perineum, and toe webs; (2) hand, face and trunk; and (3) upper arms and legs. Skin sites with partial occlusion (axilla, perineum, and toe webs) harbor more microorganisms than do less occluded areas (legs, arms, and trunk). These quantitative differences may relate to increased amount of moisture, higher body temperature, and greater concentrations of skin surface lipids. The axilla, perineum, and toe webs are more frequently colonized by Gram-negative bacilli than are drier areas of the skin.

The number of bacteria on an individual's skin remains relatively constant; bacterial survival and the extent of colonization probably depend partly on the exposure of skin to a particular environment and partly on the innate and species-specific bactericidal activity in skin. Also, a high degree of specificity is involved in the adherence of bacteria to epithelial surfaces. Not all bacteria attach to skin; staphylococci, which are the major element of the nasal flora, possess a distinct advantage over viridans streptococci in colonizing the nasal mucosa. Conversely, viridans streptococci are not seen in large numbers on the skin or in the nose but dominate the oral flora.

The microbiology literature is inconsistent about the density of bacteria on the skin; one reason for this is the variety of methods used to collect skin bacteria. The scrub method yields the highest and most accurate counts for a given skin area. Most microorganisms live in the superficial layers of the stratum corneum and in the upper parts of the hair follicles. Some bacteria, however, reside in the deeper areas of the hair follicles and are beyond the reach of ordinary disinfection procedures. These bacteria are a reservoir for recolonization after the surface bacteria are removed.

Staphylococcus epidermidis

S. epidermidis is a major inhabitant of the skin, and in some areas it makes up more than 90 percent of the resident aerobic flora.

Staphylococcus aureus

The nose and perineum are the most common sites for S. aureus colonization, which is present in 10 percent to more than 40 percent of normal adults. S. aureus is prevalent (67 percent) on vulvar skin. Its occurrence in the nasal passages varies with age, being greater in the newborn, less in adults. S. aureus is extremely common (80 to 100 percent) on the skin of patients with certain dermatologic diseases such as atopic dermatitis, but the reason for this finding is unclear.

Micrococci

Micrococci are not as common as staphylococci and diphtheroids; however, they are frequently present on normal skin.Micrococcus luteus, the predominant species, usually accounts for 20 to 80 percent of the micrococci isolated from the skin.

Diphtheroids (Coryneforms)

The term diphtheroid denotes a wide range of bacteria belonging to the genus Corynebacterium. Classification of diphtheroids remains unsatisfactory; for convenience, cutaneous diphtheroids have been categorized into the following four groups: lipophilic or nonlipophilic diphtheroids; anaerobic diphtheroids; diphtheroids producing porphyrins (coral red fluorescence when viewed under ultraviolet light); and those that possess some keratinolytic enzymes and are associated with trichomycosis axillaris (infection of axillary hair). Lipophilic diphtheroids are extremely common in the axilla, whereas nonlipophilic strains are found more commonly on glabrous skin.

Anaerobic diphtheroids are most common in areas rich in sebaceous glands. Although the name Corynebacterium acnes was originally used to describe skin anaerobic diphtheroids, these are now classified as Propionibacterium acnes and as P. granulosum. P. acnes is seen eight times more frequently than P. granulosum in acne lesions and is probably involved in acne pathogenesis. Children younger than 10 years are rarely colonized with P. acnes. The appearance of this organism on the skin is probably related to the onset of secretion of sebum (a semi-fluid substance composed of fatty acids and epithelial debris secreted from sebaceous glands) at puberty. P. avidum, the third species of cutaneous anaerobic diphtheroids, is rare in acne lesions and is more often isolated from the axilla.

Streptococci

Streptococci, especially β-hemolytic streptococci, are rarely seen on normal skin. The paucity of β-hemolytic streptococci on the skin is attributed at least in part to the presence of lipids on the skin, as these lipids are lethal to streptococci. Other groups of streptococci, such as α-hemolytic streptococci, exist primarily in the mouth, from where they may, in rare instances, spread to the skin.

Gram-Negative Bacilli

Gram-negative bacteria make up a small proportion of the skin flora. In view of their extraordinary numbers in the gut and in the natural environment, their scarcity on skin is striking. They are seen in moist intertriginous areas, such as the toe webs and axilla, and not on dry skin. Desiccation is the major factor preventing the multiplication of Gram-negative bacteria on intact skin.Enterobacter, Klebsiella, Escherichia coli, and Proteus spp. are the predominant Gram-negative organisms found on the skin.Acinetobacter spp also occurs on the skin of normal individuals and, like other Gram-negative bacteria, is more common in the moist intertriginous areas.

Nail Flora

The microbiology of a normal nail is generally similar to that of the skin. Dust particles and other extraneous materials may get trapped under the nail, depending on what the nail contacts. In addition to resident skin flora, these dust particles may carry fungi and bacilli. Aspergillus, Penicillium, Cladosporium, and Mucor are the major types of fungi found under the nails.


http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK7617/




LISTA:
http://textbookofbacteriology.net/normalflora.html

Coloração de Gram

Gram staining (or Gram's method) is a method of differentiating bacterial species into two large groups (Gram-positive and Gram-negative). The name comes from its inventor, Hans Christian Gram. The Gram stain is almost always the first step in the identification of a bacterial organism. While Gram staining is a valuable diagnostic tool in both clinical and research settings, not all bacteria can be definitively classified by this technique. This gives rise to Gram-variable and Gram-indeterminate groups as well. History[edit]The method is named after its inventor, the Danish scientist Hans Christian Gram (1853–1938), who developed the technique while working with Carl Friedländer in the morgue of the city hospital in Berlin in 1884. Gram devised his technique not for the purpose of distinguishing one type of bacterium from another but make bacteria more visible in stained sections of lung tissue.[2] He published his method in 1884, and included in his short report the observation that the Typhus bacillus did not retain the stain.[3] Staining mechanism[edit]Gram-positive bacteria have a thick mesh-like cell wall made of peptidoglycan (50-90% of cell envelope), and as a result are stained purple by crystal violet, whereas Gram-negative bacteria have a thinner layer (10% of cell envelope), so do not retain the purple stain and are counter-stained pink by the Safranin. There are four basic steps of the Gram stain: Applying a primary stain (crystal violet) to a heat-fixed smear of a bacterial culture. Heat fixing kills some bacteria but is mostly used to affix the bacteria to the slide so that they don't rinse out during the staining procedure. The addition of iodine, which binds to crystal violet and traps it in the cell, Rapid decolorization with alcohol or acetone, and Counterstaining with safranin.[9] Carbol fuchsin is sometimes substituted for safranin since it more intensely stains anaerobic bacteria, but it is less commonly used as a counterstain.[10] Crystal violet (CV) dissociates in aqueous solutions into CV+ and chloride (Cl− ) ions. These ions penetrate through the cell wall and cell membrane of both Gram-positive and Gram-negative cells. The CV+ ion interacts with negatively charged components of bacterial cells and stains the cells purple. Iodine (I− or I− 3) interacts with CV+ and forms large complexes of crystal violet and iodine (CV–I) within the inner and outer layers of the cell. Iodine is often referred to as a mordant, but is a trapping agent that prevents the removal of the CV–I complex and, therefore, color the cell.[11] When a decolorizer such as alcohol or acetone is added, it interacts with the lipids of the cell membrane. A Gram-negative cell loses its outer lipopolysaccharide membrane, and the inner peptidoglycan layer is left exposed. The CV–I complexes are washed from the Gram-negative cell along with the outer membrane. In contrast, a Gram-positive cell becomes dehydrated from an ethanol treatment. The large CV–I complexes become trapped within the Gram-positive cell due to the multilayered nature of its peptidoglycan. The decolorization step is critical and must be timed correctly; the crystal violet stain is removed from both gram-positive and negative cells if the decolorizing agent is left on too long (a matter of seconds). After decolorization, the Gram-positive cell remains purple and the Gram-negative cell loses its purple color. Counterstain, which is usually positively charged safranin or basic fuchsin, is applied last to give decolorized Gram-negative bacteria a pink or red color.[12][13]

Álcool a 70%

As an antiseptic, 70 percent of alcohol is prefered to a stonger solution. Pure alcohol coagulates protein in contact. Suppose the pure alcohol is poured ovr a single celled organism. Th alcohol will penetrate the cell wall of the organism in all direction, coagulating the protein just inside the cell wall. the ring of the coagulated protein would then prevent the alcohol from penetrating farther from the cell, and no more coagulation woul take place. At this time the cell would become dormant butnot dead. under the proper condition the cell would then begin to function. if 70 percent of alcohol is poured to a single celled organism, the diluted alcohol also coagulates the protein, but at a slower rate, so that it penetrates all the way through the cell before coagulation can block it. then all the cell is coagulated and the organism dies. Portanto, álcool a 96% coagula as proteínas no contacto tornando a parede da bactéria rapidamente impermeável ao mesmo. A 70% o álcool coagula as proteínas na mesma mas mais lentamente, permitindo que mais álcool entre através da parede celular.

Phenyl group, Phenol & Benzene

In organic chemistry, the phenyl group or phenyl ring is a cyclic group of atoms with the formula C6H5. Phenyl groups are closely related to benzene. Phenyl groups have six carbon atoms bonded together in a hexagonal planar ring, five of which are bonded to individual hydrogen atoms, with the remaining carbon bonded to a substituent. Phenyl groups are commonplace in organic chemistry. Although often depicted with alternating double and single bonds, phenyl groups are chemically aromatic and show nearly equal bond lengths between carbon atoms in the ring. Phenol — also known as carbolic acid — is an aromatic organic compound with the molecular formula C6H5OH. It is a white crystalline solid that is volatile. The molecule consists of a phenyl group (-C6H5) bonded to a hydroxyl group (-OH). It is mildly acidic, but requires careful handling due to its propensity to cause burns. Phenol was first extracted from coal tar, but today is produced on a large scale (about 7 billion kg/year) from petroleum. It is an important industrial commodity as a precursor to many materials and useful compounds.[4] Its major uses involve its conversion to plastics or related materials. Phenol and its chemical derivatives are key for building polycarbonates, epoxies, Bakelite, nylon, detergents, herbicides such as phenoxy herbicides, and numerous pharmaceutical drugs. Benzene is an organic chemical compound with the molecular formula C6H6. Its molecule is composed of 6 carbon atoms joined in a ring, with 1 hydrogen atom attached to each carbon atom. Because its molecules contain only carbon and hydrogen atoms, benzene is classed as a hydrocarbon. Benzene is a natural constituent of crude oil, and is one of the most elementary petrochemicals. Benzene is a colorless and highly flammable liquid with a sweet smell.

Nitrophenol - Substrato cromogénico

Nitrophenols are a family of nitrated phenols with the formula HOC6H4NO2. Three isomeric nitrophenols exist: o-Nitrophenol (1-hydroxy-2-nitrobenzene; OH and NO2 groups are neighboring; CAS number: 88-75-5), a yellow crystalline solid (m.p. 46 °C). m-Nitrophenol (1-hydroxy-3-nitrobenzene, CAS number: 554-84-7), a yellow solid (m.p. 97 °C) and precursor to the drug mesalazine (5-aminosalicylic acid). p-Nitrophenol (1-hydroxy-4-nitrobenzene, CAS number: 100-02-7), yellow crystals (m.p. 114 °C). It is a precursor to the rice herbicide fluorodifen and the pesticide parathion. Nitrophenols are poisonous. Occasionally, nitrophenols contaminate the soil near former explosives or fabric factories and military plants, and current research is aimed at remediation. para-Nitrophenylphosphate (pNPP) is a chromogenic substrate for acid and alkaline phosphatase in ELISA assays. Under their influence the decay to yellow para-nitrophenol is catalysed. This product can be measured with a 405 nm spectrophotometer. ortho-Nitrophenyl-β-galactoside (ONPG) is a colorimetric and spectrophotometric substrate for detection of beta-galactosidase activity. This compound is normally colorless. However if β-galactosidase is present, it hydrolyzes the ONPG molecule into galactose and ortho-nitrophenol. The latter compound has a yellow color that can be used to check for enzyme activity by means of a colorimetric assay (at 420 nm wavelength). β-galactosidase is required for lactose utilization, so the intensity of the color produced can be used as a measure of the enzymatic rate.

Hydroxyl, Hidroxide & Hydrolisis

A hydroxyl is a chemical functional group containing an oxygen atom connected by a covalent bond to a hydrogen atom, a pairing that can be simply understood as a substructure of the water molecule. When it appears, it imparts to chemical structures some of the reactive and interactive properties of the -OH (not to be confused with the hydroxide ion OH-) of water (ionizability, hydrogen bonding, etc.). The neutral form of the hydroxyl group is a hydroxyl radical. The anion form, (OH−) is called the hydroxide anion; it bears a single negative charge largely residing on the more electronegative oxygen. Hydroxide is a diatomic anion with chemical formula OH−. It consists of an oxygen and a hydrogen atom held together by a covalent bond, and carries a negative electric charge. It is an important but usually minor constituent of water. It functions as a base, a ligand, a nucleophile and a catalyst. The hydroxide ion forms salts, some of which dissociate in aqueous solution, liberating solvated hydroxide ions. Sodium hydroxide is a multi-million-ton per annum commodity chemical. A hydroxide attached to a strongly electropositive center may itself dissociate,[citation needed] liberating a hydrogen cation (H+), making the parent compound an acid. The corresponding electrically neutral compound •HO is the hydroxyl radical. The corresponding covalently-bound group -OH of atoms is the hydroxyl group. Hydroxide ion and hydroxyl group are nucleophiles and can act as a catalyst in organic chemistry. Many inorganic substances which bear the word "hydroxide" in their names are not ionic compounds of the hydroxide ion, but covalent compounds which contain hydroxyl groups. Hydrolysis (/haɪˈdrɒlɨsɪs/; from Greek hydro-, meaning "water", and lysis, meaning "separation") usually means the cleavage of chemical bonds by the addition of water. Where a carbohydrate is broken into its component sugar molecules by hydrolysis, this is termed saccharification. Generally, hydrolysis or saccharification is a step in the degradation of a substance.

Receptor muscarínico

http://www.zuniv.net/physiology/book/images/fp6-3.jpg

Imunoglobulina A - IgA

Immunoglobulin A (IgA) is an antibody that plays a critical role in mucosal immunity. More IgA is produced in mucosal linings than all other types of antibody combined; between three and five grams are secreted into the intestinal lumen each day. This accumulates up to 15% of the total immunoglobulin produced in the entire body. IgA has two subclasses (IgA1 and IgA2) and can exist in a dimeric form called secretory IgA (sIgA). In its secretory form, IgA is the main immunoglobulin found in mucous secretions, including tears, saliva, colostrum and secretions from the genitourinary tract, gastrointestinal tract, prostate and respiratory epithelium. It is also found in small amounts in blood. The secretory component of sIgA protects the immunoglobulin from being degraded by proteolytic enzymes, thus sIgA can survive in the harsh gastrointestinal tract environment and provide protection against microbes that multiply in body secretions. sIgA can also inhibit inflammatory effects of other immunoglobulins. IgA is a poor activator of the complement system, and opsonises only weakly. Its heavy chains are of the type α. Pathology[edit source | editbeta]Decreased or absent IgA, termed selective IgA deficiency, can be a clinically significant immunodeficiency. Neisseria gonorrhœae (which causes gonorrhea), Streptococcus pneumoniae, and Haemophilus influenzae type B all release a protease which destroys IgA. IgA nephropathy is caused by IgA deposits in the kidneys. It is not yet known why IgA deposits occur in this chronic disease. Some theories suggest an abnormality of the immune system results in these deposits. Celiac disease involves IgA pathology due to the presence of IgA antiendomysial antibodies. Henoch–Schönlein purpura (HSP) is a systemic disorder caused by deposits of IgA and compliment component 3 (C3) in the small vessels. HSP occurs usually in small children and involves the skin and connective tissues, scrotum, joints, gastrointestinal tract and kidneys. It usually follows an upper respiratory infection and resolves within a couple weeks as the liver clears out the IgA aggregates.

Pleocitose

Pleocytosis is an increased cell count {Gk. pleion more}, particularly an increase in white blood cell (WBC) count, in a bodily fluid, such as cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). It is often defined specifically as an increased WBC count in CSF.

Amphophilic

Staining with both acid and basic dyes : neutrophil.

The choroid plexus

The choroid plexus (from Greek khorion "membrane enclosing the fetus, afterbirth"; plexus: Mod.L., lit. "braid, network") is a structure in the ventricles of the brain where cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is produced. The choroid plexus consists of modified ependymal cells. CSF is recycled (flushed) 4 times per day in order to clean out metabolites and toxins like beta amyloid. Hence the choroid plexus must produce about 500 milliliters of CSF daily (or 20.83 ml per hour).

Picnose

picnose nome feminino HISTOLOGIA condensação patológica da cromatina nuclear em blocos picnose In Infopédia [Em linha]. Porto: Porto Editora, 2003-2013. [Consult. 2013-09-18]. Disponível na www: .

Döhle bodies

Döhle bodies are light blue-gray, oval, basophilic, leukocyte inclusions located in the peripheral cytoplasm of neutrophils. They measure 1-3 µm in diameter. Not much is known about their formation, but are thought to be remnants of the rough endoplasmic reticulum.
They often present in conjunction with toxic granulation.
They are named after German pathologist, Karl Gottfried Paul Döhle (1855-1928).

The presence of Döhle bodies in mature and immature neutrophils on a blood smear can be normal if they are present only in small numbers.

Döhle bodies are intra-cytoplasmic structures composed of agglutinated ribosomes; they will increase in number with inflammation and increased granulocytopoiesis. If there are many neutrophils in the bloodstream containing Döhle bodies, these can be referred to as toxic neutrophils. Toxic neutrophils can also correspond to neutrophils that possess a more basophilic cytoplasm, basophilic granulation (infrequently observed), or cytoplasmic vacuoles in addition to one of the preceding cytoplasmic changes. Döhle bodies, cytoplasmic basophilia and cytoplasmic granulation all reflect "defects" in cell production and maturation during active granulocytopoiesis. Just like a left shift, the presence of toxic neutrophils suggests increased granulocytopoiesis. However, in a freshly prepared blood smear, the presence of vacuolation in addition to toxic neutrophils, reflects endotoxemia resulting in autolysis of neutrophils. This autodigestion is responsible for the cytoplasmic vacuolation. It is the single toxic change that does not result from the "manufacturing" process.

Associated conditions. They are seen in:

• Burns
• Infections
• Physical trauma
• Neoplastic diseases
• Wissler’s disease
• May-Hegglin anomaly
• Chédiak-Steinbrinck-Higashi’s syndrome

Mucina

Mucins are a family of high molecular weight, heavily glycosylated proteins (glycoconjugates) produced by epithelial tissues in most metazoans.

Mucins' key characteristic is their ability to form gels; therefore they are a key component in most gel-like secretions, serving functions from lubrication to cell signalling to forming chemical barriers.

They often take an inhibitory role.

Hemocitómetro

http://hemocytometer.wordpress.com/2013/04/11/hemocytometer-square-size/

Solução de Turk

Used in hematology, Turk's solution is a composed of a stain (Gentian violet) and 6% acetic acid.

The solution destroys red blood cells within a blood sample, and stains the nuclei of the white blood cells, making them easier to see and count.

Crystal violet or Gentian violet

Crystal violet or Gentian violet (also known as Methyl Violet 10B, hexamethyl pararosaniline chloride, or pyoctanin(e)) is a triarylmethane dye. The dye is used as a histological stain and in Gram’s method of classifying bacteria.

Crystal violet has antibacterial, antifungal, and anthelmintic properties and was formerly important as a topical antiseptic. The medical use of the dye has been largely superseded by more modern drugs, although it is still listed by the World Health Organization.

The name "gentian violet" was originally used for a mixture of methyl pararosaniline dyes (methyl violet) but is now often considered a synonym for crystal violet. The name refers to its colour, being like that of the petals of a gentian flower; it is not made from gentians or from violets.

Composto heterocíclico

A heterocyclic compound is a cyclic compound that has atoms of at least two different elements as members of its ring(s). The counterparts of heterocyclic compounds are homocyclic compounds, the rings of which are made of a single element.

Although heterocyclic compounds may be inorganic, most contain at least one carbon. Since in organic chemistry non-carbons usually are considered to replace carbon atoms, they are called heteroatoms, meaning 'different from carbon and hydrogen' (rings of heteroatoms of the same element are homocyclic).

Deprotonation

Deprotonation is the removal of a proton (H+) from a molecule, forming the conjugate base.

The relative ability of a molecule to give up a proton is measured by its pKa value.
A low pKa value indicates that the compound is acidic and will easily give up its proton to a base.
The pKa of a compound is determined by many things, but the most significant is the stability of the conjugate base, which is determined mainly by the ability (or inability) of the conjugated base to stabilize the negative charge.

Refringência ou Refração

(physics) The turning or bending of any wave, such as a light or sound wave, when it passes from one medium into another of different optical density.

Birefringência (physics) the splitting of a ray of light into two parallel rays of perpendicular polarization by passage through an optically anisotropic medium.

Romanowsky type stains

Any stain containing methylene blue and/or its products of oxidation (azure B), and a halogenated fluorescein dye, usually eosin B or Y.

Precisão e Exactidão ?

Precisão ?: Resultados dentro dos valores do controlo interno. Podem não estar exactos (correctos) mas saem sempre dentro dos valores estabelecidos como normais/anormais num dado equipamento.

Exactidão ?: Resultados dentro dos valores do controlo externo. Em comparação com outros equipamentos os resultados são fiáveis para extrapolar para os doentes.

McDonald criteria

The McDonald criteria are diagnostic criteria for multiple sclerosis (MS).

These criteria are named after neurologist W. Ian McDonald.
In April 2001, an international panel in association with the National Multiple Sclerosis Society (NMSS) of America recommended revised diagnostic criteria for MS. They discourage the previously used terms such as "clinically definite" and "probable MS", and propose as diagnostic either "MS", "possible MS", or "not MS".
They have undergone revisions in 2005 and 2010. They make use of advances in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) techniques and are intended to replace the Poser criteria and the older Schumacher criteria. The new criteria facilitate the diagnosis of MS in patients who present with signs and symptoms suggestive of the disease. These include monosymptomatic disease, disease with a typical relapsing-remitting course or insidious progression but no clear attacks and remissions. The original article of McDonald states that "MS is a clinical entity and therefore should be diagnosized [sic] with clinical and paraclinical criteria".Nevertheless, they acknowledge the existence of lesion-based MS definition, saying that some other groups consider that "the only proved diagnosis of MS can be made upon autopsy, or occasionally upon biopsy, where lesions typical of MS can be directly detected through standard histopathological techniques".

Clinical Presentation	Additional Data Needed
* 2 or more attacks (relapses) * 2 or more objective clinical lesions	None; clinical evidence will suffice (additional evidence desirable but must be consistent with MS)
* 2 or more attacks * 1 objective clinical lesion	Dissemination in space, demonstrated by: * MRI * or a positive CSF and 2 or more MRI lesions consistent with MS * or further clinical attack involving different site
* 1 attack * 2 or more objective clinical lesions	Dissemination in time, demonstrated by: * MRI * or second clinical attack
* 1 attack * 1 objective clinical lesion (monosymptomatic presentation)	Dissemination in space demonstrated by: * MRI * or positive CSF and 2 or more MRI lesions consistent with MS and Dissemination in time demonstrated by: * MRI * or second clinical attack
Insidious neurological progression suggestive of MS (primary progressive MS)	One year of disease progression (retrospectively or prospectively determined) and Two of the following: a. Positive brain MRI (nine T2 lesions or four or more T2 lesions with positive VEP) b. Positive spinal cord MRI (two focal T2 lesions) c. Positive CSF

Intrathecal

Intrathecal is an adjective that refers to something introduced into or occurring in the space under the arachnoid membrane of the brain or spinal cord.
For example, intrathecal immunoglobulin production means production of this substance in the spinal cord.

The western blot = immunoblot

The western blot (sometimes called the protein immunoblot) is a widely accepted analytical technique used to detect specific proteins in the given sample of tissue homogenate or extract.

It uses gel electrophoresis to separate native proteins by 3-D structure or denatured proteins by the length of the polypeptide. The proteins are then transferred to a membrane (typically nitrocellulose or PVDF), where they are stained with antibodies specific to the target protein.

There are now many reagent companies that specialize in providing antibodies (both monoclonal and polyclonal antibodies) against tens of thousands of different proteins.
Commercial antibodies can be expensive, although the unbound antibody can be reused between experiments.
This method is used in the fields of molecular biology, biochemistry, immunogenetics and other molecular biology disciplines.

Alfabeto grego

Letter Name Sound value Ancient[4] Modern[5] Α α alpha [a] [aː] [a] Β β beta [b] [v] Γ γ gamma [ɡ] [ɣ] ~ [ʝ] Δ δ delta [d] [ð] Ε ε epsilon [e] [e] Ζ ζ zeta [zd] (or [dz][6]) [z] Η η eta [ɛː] [i] Θ θ theta [tʰ] [θ] Ι ι iota [i] [iː] [i] Κ κ kappa [k] [k] ~ [c] Λ λ lambda [l] [l] Μ μ mu [m] [m]

Letter Name Sound value Ancient Modern Ν ν nu [n] [n] Ξ ξ xi [ks] [ks] Ο ο omicron [o] [o] Π π pi [p] [p] Ρ ρ rho [r] [r] Σ σς[7] sigma [s] [s] Τ τ tau [t] [t] Υ υ upsilon [y] [yː] [i] Φ φ phi [pʰ] [f] Χ χ chi [kʰ] [x] ~ [ç] Ψ ψ psi [ps] [ps] Ω ω omega [ɔː] [o]